:+ ex|8+W0[^gEX%:rUXd$I. Learn. Characteristics distilled from the literature related that the ULG patterns will have level lines of demarcation with relatively uniform magnitude of damage, unless the upper layer is flowing from one location to another and, if so, the lines of demarcation will be angled towards the opening. This change in ventilation is typically done during ventilation-controlled conditions, which causes the HRR to increase within the compartment and results in combustion wherever the mixture of UHCs and oxygen is sufficient and that the mixture be at a sufficient temperature to initiate combustion (Madrzykowski and Kerber 2009; Kerber and Walton 2005). hb```f``g`a`` B@1V u_&I\P ePQQR("rlCl6JM "XyWrf0 & Chapter 3, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Hicks et al. 2013). fire effects); Many of the early and current researchers assumed that every investigator was able to visibly assess varying degrees of damage equally without processes (Shanley et al. 4. The burning during ventilation-controlled conditions is often times detached from a fuel item (i.e. Such patterns can provide clues as to the origin, cause or propagation path of the fire. 2006). For example, many materials must reach certain temperatures to melt, deform, or fail. A study conducted in 2012 examined the effect of carpet underlayment/carpet pad on post-flashover fire, floor patterns (Wood et al. 2013; Wolfe et al. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK), Walton W, Thomas P (2008) Estimating Temperatures in Compartment Fires. Schroeder was able to illustrate that a crystalline change would occur within the gypsum wallboard when heated by using an x-ray diffraction technique. The studies demonstrated that the following causes could result in damage similar to irregular floor patterns, including: fires from interstitial space below the floor decking, melting plastics, draperies, furniture items, ventilation path and radiant heat from fully developed fires. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Claflin P (2014) Effects of Multiple Ventilation Openings on a Post-Flashover Compartment Fire. Shanley et al. [1], This developmental curve reflects the progression of intuitive thinking processes as a person develops more advanced knowledge structures in a specific area. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Technical Note 7213, Maryland (USA), King C (1985) Ethics and Arson Investigation. Photograph of penetration through a floor. 1, 4th edn. Heat exposure to the materials (e.g. Interscience Communications, London (UK), Meacham B (2000) Application of a Decision-Support Tool for Comparing and Ranking Risk Factors for Incorporation into Performance-Based Building Regulations. It was not until 2008 that NFPA 921 changed the definition of the term with the introduction of the term fire effects. In these texts the authors stressed that the investigator should evaluate low burns for possible ignition sources, but did not necessarily link the damage to ignitable liquids. Other factors that have been shown to influence the HRR within a compartment and the location of combustion are suppression-related activities that affect ventilation. The other more pervasive misconception dealt with the angle and base of the V-pattern. The first reference that can be identified related to rejecting this misconception was a discussion by DeHaan (1983). Often times the soot deposited within the room of origin will be higher in elevation with distinct lines of demarcation and thick soot deposits. (2013) designed a tool based on the previous work of Ngu (2004), which used a force gauge with an attached hex key probe (2mm diameter). The varying DOFD discussed in NFPA 921 is consistent with the findings from the existing studies (Schroeder 1999; Hicks et al. Later the term morphed into heat shadowing, which was first defined as the effect of an object blocking the convected or radiated travel of heat and flame from its source to the particular surface material which is under examination (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. (USA), Carman S (2008) Burn Pattern Development in Post-Flashover Fires. Upper Layer-Generated Fire Pattern (fire origin was located along adjacent wall-fire test conducted at EKU by author). Fire investigation plays a critical role in identifying potentially faulty or improperly designed and installed products that may have played a role in the fire and in identifying persons that deliberately started a fire with malicious intent. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). Many fire investigation reports, textbooks and standards inconsistently report degrees of damage, using a wide range of undefined modifiers, such as greater, lesser, heavy, light, minor, moderate, major, severe and large, in an attempt to distinguish between levels of damage that they observe and are trying to convey (DeHaan and Icove 2011; Lentini 2012; Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012; NFPA 2014; Shanley et al. Custer was the first to discuss a concept of shadowing by content items and how these areas of lesser damage assisted the investigator in identifying direction of heat exposure (Custer and Wright 1984). The upper layer is a term commonly given to the collection of smoke and heated gases during the progression of the fire near the upper regions of the compartment, typically near the ceiling. In fuel-controlled conditions, cues 1 and 2 were the most positively identified in 80% of the studies (20/25), cue 3 was identified in 60% of the studies (15/25), and cue 4 was only identified in 48% of the studies (12/25). u-shaped pattern. Previous fire pattern research by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), the National Institute of The walls and ceiling were lined with gypsum wallboard. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. In fuel-controlled conditions, cues 24 were positively identified in 92% of the studies (23/25), cues 1 and 5 were positively identified in 88% of the studies (22/25), cue 6 was positively identified in 84% of the studies (21/25), and cue 7 was identified in only 68% of the studies (17/25). Heat damage to the surface linings and the contents within the compartment after the fire is frequently the most readily visible and measurable. statement and Prominent forensic scientist, Paul Kirk (1969), wrote in support of using depth of char for fire investigation in the following, variations in depth of the char will inevitably be notedand that this feature of the fire is of primary importance. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 11:1518, Crofton, MD, Kirk P (1969) Fire Investigation. For example, the clean burn effect requires wall temperatures to reach approximately 450500C and should be evaluated as possibly exposed to a plume (Stratakis and Stamatelos 2003). The central theme is that the investigator can section off a room and can use the location of ventilation openings as a predictor of the location and magnitude of damage based on the location of this ventilation and the predicted airflow from these openings. The most emphasis was placed on combustibles involved and openings and ventilation. (1997)) contends that the source of available fresh air from adjacent spaces will have a significant influence on whether or not the ventilation-generated patterns are prevalent with such magnitude. The fourth part of the review focuses on the practice of using damage in fire investigation to assist in determining the area of fire origin. Babrauskas (2005) lists several unpublished tests of holes through wood floors and provides a summary of these tests. Cue 5-increased area and magnitude of damage under the window. The pin size was based on the Mealy (2013) research, which resulted in a pressure of 1175psi (0.86kg/mm2). In the fire investigation profession, testing to determine whether the first burning object can ignite a secondary object is paramount to hypothesis testing of an area of origin. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Hicks W, Tinsley A, Kennedy P (2010a) Fire Patterns with Low Heat Release Rate Initial Fuels. Both tests resulted in an area of greatest damage directly across the room from the window opening, the opposite side of the room from the true origin. The following keywords were used for the literature review, including: fire patterns, fire effects, fire investigation, arson investigation, burn patterns and burn indicators. Mealy et al. 2006; Hopkins et al. When the gases rise and expand, they begin interacting with the lining surfaces and contents in the flow of the fluid. The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 associated with this review paper. 1. Fire Technology 39:207224, Hopkins R, Gorbett G, Kennedy P (2007) Fire Pattern Persistence Through Post-Flashover Compartment Fires. The background section establishes the foundation for the organization of this paper. The other misconception stated that if the pattern had a wide base and resembled an inverted cone, then it was started with a liquid fuel (Barracato 1979). J Forensic Sci 50(4):894905, Taroni F, Aitken C, Garbolino P, Biedermann A (2006) Bayesian Networks and Probabilistic inference in Forensic Science (Statistics in Practice). These results were found to be statistically significant using a chi square distribution yielding a p-value of 0.006. Dissertation, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Gorbett G, Chapdelaine W (2014) Scientific Method Use, Application and Gap Analysis for Origin Determination. In order for a fire to occur, three vital components must be present: a fuel source, an oxidant (O 2) and a sufficient amount of energy in the form of heat. A clean burn area of damage was located at the area of origin only with the fire with the shortest duration of full room involvement burning. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for PG fire patterns. These researchers proffered that the closer the fuel item burning was to the wall surface, the sharper the contrast and angle to the lines of demarcation and the more likely the damage would resemble a V in shape. This warning was strengthened over the years to say irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings should not be identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation of the shape alone (NFPA 2001). A survey was conducted by the National Center for Forensic Sciences (NCFS) in 2000 where 422 fire investigators revealed that only 33% held a college degree, of which only 10% were related to science or engineering (Minnich 2000). 6). The profession requires new research to span the gaps identified within each sub process. The terminology associated with fire patterns and their use in origin determination has evolved over the past 80years, so the first task was to identify any separations within the work to better organize the presentation of the literature. The Institution of Fire Engineers, Leicester (UK), Cox A (2013) Origin Matrix Analysis: A Systematic Methodology for the Assessment and Interpretation of Compartment Fire Damage. 1997; NFPA 2014; Gottuk and White 2008). There has been much work towards developing methods for calculating the radiant heat transfer from a plume to secondary objects outside of the plume with varying accuracy. This limitation of the flaming combustion allows for the production of smoke. 2007; Jarman et al. A compartment (3.7m3.7m2.4m) with a single doorway ventilation opening located in the center of a wall was used for this series of tests. Photograph of a Conical-Shaped Fire Pattern along a concrete block wall (fire origin was located under the stack of wooden pallets-fire test conducted at EKU by author). In 1992, NFPA 921s first edition identified most of these old indicators as misconceptions. NFPA 921s original publication followed this trend and warned, irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings cannot always be reliably identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation alone (NFPA 1992). flaming combustion detached from the fuel item or package), High Temperature lining surfaces Radiant heat transfer (absorption/reflection). These studies focused on fire pattern reproducibility, pattern persistence through flashover, the use of fire patterns in origin determination and the influence of initial, low HRR fuel on fire pattern production. 1997). First Asian Conference on Fire Science and Technology, China, Quintiere J (1995) Compartment Fire Modeling. Fire occurs due to the exothermic reaction of combustion (burning), producing heat and light. 1997; NFPA 2014; Gorbett et al. The damage observed to wall, ceiling and content surfaces is an artifact of the fire dynamics for that fire. Two tests were completed with television sets placed on a wood stand next to an upholstered chair. For example, the location of fire department entry, the use of positive pressure ventilation and the change of ventilation upon arrival should result in fire patterns that are similar to ventilation-generated fire patterns. Source. Identification of varying DOFD throughout the compartment serves as the basis for interpretation by the investigator. A literature review was performed in order to achieve the objectives of this study. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Carman S (2010) Clean Burn Fire Patterns A New Perspective for Investigators. This test was conducted as part of a conference where the participants of the conference were to evaluate the fire scenes for origin. First, during fuel-controlled conditions ventilation has been shown to cause the fire plume to lean away from the source of ventilation due to momentum flows from the inflow, thus influencing the truncated cone shape (Shanley et al. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. They focused on under-ventilated fires, the fire growth associated with these types of fires and their forensic analysis. magnitude of damage, type of fire effect, color, texture) and are in close proximity to each other. Ultimately, the locations of damage and fire patterns are compared to the causal factors from the physics of the fire, alternative causes and background information. From this work, the researchers used gravimetric measurements of these filters to demonstrate and validate an analytical model for smoke deposition based on thermophoresis. 4). Also, the lines of demarcation are not parallel to the floor, but are at an angle representing the buoyant flow, usually with characteristic geometric shapes. debris fall down). The presence of a soffit and the size of an opening influences the depth of the damage within the compartment, however, as the compartment nears flashover damage begins to occur at lower elevations on all surfaces. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Gorbett G, Hicks W, Kennedy P, Hopkins R (2006) Full-Scale Room Burn Pattern Study. The Mealy study (2013) indicated that a variance on the depth measurements, regardless of the user, was negligible (~10% variance) and that the method worked at reliably indicating fire travel, especially when no visible observations could be made. In the Ngu study, a series of power law correlation plots were developed between the calcination of gypsum wallboard and the total heat exposure for various types and thicknesses of the material (2004). Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 7:1618, Crofton, MD, Straeter R, Crawford C (1955) Techniques of Arson Investigation. The cited basis for this pattern is the principles of fluid flow and the buoyant nature of heated gases. Although these studies demonstrated that depth of calcination surveys assisted in the area of origin determination, neither developed a process to quickly process a fire scene. 2002) and forensic analysis (Taroni et al. More than a decade later this misconception can be seen in the majority of all fire investigation literature (Barracato 1979; DeHaan 1983; Smith 1983; Harmer et al. f&dUCk|Q89Z(` RJ National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), Ngu C (2004) Calcination of Gypsum Plasterboard under Fire Exposure. Cue 6-increased area and magnitude of damage around gypsum wallboard seams. Holes in floors have had many misconceptions tied directly to floor patterns, as discussed previously. However, Kirk cautioned that investigators should not place more than casual emphasis on placing a direct relation between char depth and time of burning due to the number of variables that could influence the findings and the lack of reliably controlled test data available (Kirk 1969). clean burn) and with wash from the hoseline for suppression. This causes the plume to widen horizontally in the upper layer causing damage to the intersecting surfaces. 1997; Hicks et al. Science 185:11241131, Kawagoe K (1958) Fire Behavior in Rooms. The results confirmed that the use of this method was appropriate for these three test fires (Shanley et al. 2003). Arson investigators were surveyed about how they investigate fires and cited interpretation of burn indicators as the most common method of establishing arson. However, this has not been demonstrated through proficiency testing done to determine the area of origin based on visible observations (Carman 2008; Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). within an area of 3.14 square metres [sic]) (Cooke and Ide 1985). NFPA 921 further lists that fire patterns can be classified by their generation or causal relationship to the fire dynamics by providing the following classes: plume-generated patterns, ventilation-generated patterns, hot gas layer-generated patterns, full-room involvement-generated patterns and suppression-generated patterns (NFPA 2014). The temperature and resultant heat flux decreases with increasing radial distance from the plume centerline. The first of which is the standoff distance between the fuel item burning and the damaged surface. The determination of the mature of an irregular pattern should not be made by visual interpretation of the pattern alone. The degree to which materials are influenced by the developing fire will be a function of the material characteristics, temperature of the products of combustion and the duration of exposure (NFPA 2014). The literature identified that investigators use the damage in two different ways. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Mealy C, Wolfe A, Gottuk D (2013) Forensic Analysis of Ignitable Liquid Fuel Fires in Buildings. However, he found that much higher charring rates apply to floors and to any other wood members where charring is affected by the presence of gaps or joints. The room burns produced patterns that were both consistent with the origin as well as burn patterns and V-patterns that were inconsistent with the origin. Plenary Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. The Schroeder study (1999), however, was the first to quantify the depth of calcination and its relationship within fire investigations. Gypsum wallboard is one of the more common lining materials for walls and ceilings used for construction of residential and commercial facilities. Although, Shanley et al. Around the late 1970s there was a movement within the profession to describe fire patterns by descriptions of their geometric shapes (e.g. It can be argued that this study was the nearest any of the methods have come to being testing for reliability or validity (Fig. It was once thought that narrow V-patterns were produced by a fast developing fire and wide V-patterns were produced by a slow developing fire (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). Given these findings, damage cues 1, 2 and 3 are used as the most accurate damage cues for classifying a fire pattern generated by upper layer. Wood has been and remains a common material used for construction of structures and contents. The authors do not, however, indicate how, provided this information, an investigator arrives at a conclusion. The high temperature gases and soot in the upper layer influences the patterns formed on lining materials of the compartment and contents. Shanley et al. The fire pattern studies revealed that the upper layer damage is very difficult to identify after the fire has transitioned into ventilation-controlled conditions. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Finally, an area that is white in color surrounded by soot areas should not be classified as a clean burn area until closer examination is performed. The fire plume is typically the highest temperature zone within the compartment, which can lead to significant damage (Beyler 1986; Lattimer 2008). Fire investigation (origin and cause determination) is an integral part of the total fire safety model, including fire prevention and protection for a community. They appear between the affected area and adjacent, less-affected areas (NFPA 2014). Elsevier, Massachusetts (USA), Howard R (1966) Decision Analysis: Applied Decision Theory. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST-GCR-98-756, Gaithersburg, MD, Donegan H (2008) Decision Analysis. Post-test data collection included examination, photography and a subset of depth of char measurements. Fire investigation textbooks, guides and studies describe the use of lines or areas of demarcation in assessing damage. Dissertation, University of Canterbury, NIJ (2009) Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward. They are examples only, not models. 1997). 1977). Fire and Materials 5(3):130141, Thomas I, Bennets I (1999) Fires in Enclosures with Single Ventilation Openings Comparison of Long and Wide Enclosure, Fire Safety Science Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium, Thomas P, Heslden J (1972) Fully Developed Fires in Single Compartments, A Co-operative Research Program of the Conseil International du Batimen (CIB Report No. Ngu (2004) performed similar experimental work as Schroeder (1999). Building Research Institute of Japan., p 27, Keith, Smith (1984) Analysis of Char Patterns Known as Alligatoring. The only point of contention then would be the manner in which the ventilation opening was created. There has been extensive work done in the area of flashover for traditional residential-sized compartments with a single opening. A U-shape could indicate that there was a "pool of origin" rather than a point of origin, such as might be caused by, say, a puddle of gasoline. As such, fire investigators have written about the use of visible and measurable observations related to varying damage to wood for as long as fire investigation has been in existence (Rethoret 1945). Another myth is that at the base of every v-pattern is an origin. Proceedings of the Society of Air Safety Investigators Annual Seminar, Beyler C (1986) Fire plumes and ceiling jets. [ ^gEX %: rUXd $ I wood stand next to an upholstered chair ( )... With this review paper heat transfer ( absorption/reflection ) accumulated while performing literature., Keith, Smith ( 1984 ) Analysis of char patterns Known as.... The damage in two different ways remains a common material used for construction of residential and commercial facilities Technology... Compartment fire pattern is the standoff distance between the affected area and magnitude of damage under the.! Floors have had many misconceptions tied directly to floor patterns, as discussed previously term the! 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